Persistence of the soil seed bank requires both dormancy and resistance to seed decay organisms. However, there is little or no information evaluating biochemical responses of dormant weed seeds to pathogens. Wild oat caryopses were incubated with four pathogenic fungal isolates to evaluate the response of the pathogen defense enzyme, polyphenol oxidase (PPO). Caryopsis PPO activity was induced by three Fusarium spp. isolates previously obtained from whole seeds incubated in the field whereas caryopsis PPO activity was decreased by a Pythium isolate. Fusarium avenaceum isolate F.a.1 caused the greatest PPO induction and was studied in more detail. When whole wild oat seeds were incubated on F.a.1, PPO activity was induced in seeds, hulls (lemma and palea), and caryopses. Incubation of whole seeds on F.a.1 gradually induced caryopsis PPO activity over an 8-d period, whereas incubation of caryopses on F.a.1 over a 4-d period caused a greater and more rapid induction of PPO activity. Very little PPO activity could be leached from untreated caryopses, but nearly all of the induced PPO activity in F.a.1-treated caryopses was readily leached when incubated in buffer. In Western blots, both untreated and F.a.1-treated leachates contained a ∼57-kilodalton (kD) protein, putatively the mature and relatively inactive form of PPO. However, lower molecular weight antigenic proteins between ∼52 and ∼25 kD were strongly induced in F.a.1-treated caryopses, with this induction being correlated with the increase in PPO activity. We hypothesize that dormant weed seeds possess biochemical defenses against pathogens and, more specifically, that proteolysis in the presence of fungal pathogens may release an activated form of PPO from the surface of wild oat caryopses and hulls.

Nomenclature: Wild oat, Avena fatua L. AVEFA

The bentgrasses comprise an adaptable group of grasses that include introduced species, cultivated turfgrasses, and native plants in North America. Their distribution in cultural landscapes has not been documented, and this gap in knowledge has limited the development of predictive ecological risk assessments for creeping bentgrass engineered for herbicide resistance. In this study, bentgrass distribution and abundance were surveyed in 289 plots in an 8.5 km² site surrounding a golf course in the northeastern United States. Four introduced species and two native bentgrasses were identified in seminatural and managed plant communities. Across the study site, 77% of the plots containing creeping bentgrass also had invasive plants. Bentgrasses co-occurred with critical habitat for threatened or endangered animals. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that bentgrasses were positively correlated with herbaceous plant cover and mowing, but negatively correlated with tree canopy cover, shrub cover, poorly drained soils, and leaf litter. The most influential ecological factors were tree canopy cover and soil moisture. Geospatial information about these two ecological factors was combined with mathematical models to generate two habitat suitability maps. The favorable environments map (FEM) showed that highly suitable bentgrass habitat covered 36% of the study site and included common features such as home lawns and railroad right-of-ways. Our results suggest that release of herbicide-resistant creeping bentgrass in this cultural landscape could potentially result in pollen-mediated gene flow, interspecific hybridization, environmental hazards, and herbicide selection pressure in some areas. Habitat suitability maps could be critical tools for predictive ecological risk assessments, monitoring projects, and management of herbicide-resistant bentgrasses.

Nomenclature: Creeping bentgrass, Agrostis stolonifera L.; AGSST

Weed-suppressive soils contain naturally occurring microorganisms that suppress a weed by inhibiting its growth, development, and reproductive potential. Increased knowledge of microbe–weed interactions in such soils could lead to the identification of management practices that create or enhance soil suppressiveness to weeds. Velvetleaf death and growth suppression was observed in a research field (fieldA) that was planted with high populations of velvetleaf, which may have developed via microbial mediated plant–soil feedback. Greenhouse studies were conducted with soil collected from fieldA (soilA) to determine if it was biologically suppressive to velvetleaf. In one study, mortality of velvetleaf grown for 8 wk in soilA was greatest (86%) and biomass was smallest (0.3 g plant⁻¹) in comparison to soils collected from surrounding fields with similar structure and nutrient content, indicating that suppressiveness of soilA was not likely caused by physical or chemical factors. When soilA was autoclaved in another study, mortality of velvetleaf plants in the heat-treated soil was reduced to 4% compared to 55% for the untreated soil, thus suggesting that suppressiveness of soilA is biological in nature. A third set of experiments showed that suppressiveness to velvetleaf could be transferred to an autoclaved soil by amending the autoclaved soil with untreated soilA; this provided additional evidence for a biological basis for the effects of soilA. The suppressive condition in these greenhouse experiments was associated with high soil populations of fusaria. Fusarium lateritium was the most frequently isolated fungus from roots of diseased velvetleaf plants collected from fieldA, and also was the most virulent when inoculated onto velvetleaf seedlings. Results of this research indicate that velvetleaf suppression can occur naturally in the field and that F. lateritium is an important cause of velvetleaf mortality in fieldA.

Nomenclature: Velvetleaf, Abutilon theophrasti Medic., ABUTH; corn, Zea mays L.; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr

Knowledge of the soil nitrogen (N) supply and the N mineralization potential of the soil combined with an understanding of weed-crop competition in response to soil nutrient levels may be used to optimize N fertilizer rates to increase the competitive advantage of crop species. A greenhouse study (2006) and field studies (2007 to 2008) in Illinois and Nebraska were conducted to quantify the growth and interference of maize and velvetleaf in response to varying synthetic N fertilizer rates in soils with high and low N mineralization potential. Natural soils were classified as having “low mineralization potential” (LMP), while soils amended with composted manure were classified as having “high mineralization potential” (HMP). Maize and velvetleaf were grown in monoculture or in mixture in both LMP and HMP soils and fertilized with zero, medium, or full locally recommended N rate. In the greenhouse, velvetleaf interference in maize with respect to plant biomass increased as N rate increased in the HMP soil, whereas increasing N rate in the LMP soil reduced velvetleaf interference. In contrast, velvetleaf interference in maize decreased as N rate increased regardless of soil class in the field experiment. With respect to grain yield, velvetleaf interference in maize was unaffected by N rate or soil class. In both greenhouse and field experiments, velvetleaf biomass was greater in the HMP soil class, whereas maize interference in velvetleaf was generally greater in the LMP soil class. While soil N levels influenced weed-crop interference in the greenhouse, the results of the field study demonstrate the difficulty of controlling soil nutrient dynamics in the field and support a maize fertilization strategy independent of weed N use considerations.

Nomenclature: Velvetleaf, Abutilon theophrasti Medic. ABUTH; maize, Zea mays L

Sourgrass is a perennial weed infesting annual and perennial crops in Brazil. Three biotypes (R1, R2, and R3) of sourgrass suspected to be glyphosate-resistant (R) and another one (S) from a natural area without glyphosate application, in Brazil, were tested for resistance to glyphosate based on screening, dose-response, and shikimic acid assays. Both screening and dose-response assays confirmed glyphosate resistance in the three sourgrass biotypes. Dose-response assay indicated a resistance factor of 2.3 for biotype R1 and 3.9 for biotypes R2 and R3. The hypothesis of a glyphosate resistance was corroborated on the basis of shikimic acid accumulation, where the S biotype accumulated 3.3, 5.0, and 5.7 times more shikimic acid than biotypes R1, R2, and R3, respectively, 168 h after treatment with 157.50 g ae ha⁻¹ of glyphosate. There were no differences in contact angle of spray droplets on leaves and spray retention, indicating that differential capture of herbicide by leaves was not responsible for resistance in these biotypes. The results confirmed resistance of sourgrass to glyphosate in Brazil.

Nomenclature: Glyphosate; sourgrass, Digitaria insularis (L.) Mez ex Ekman, TRCIN

Ludwigia is an important broadleaf weed of direct-seeded rice in Asia. Crop interference that relies on shading may have potential as a component of integrated weed management strategies but it requires understanding the extent to which rice can interfere with weed growth and how these weeds may respond. The growth of ludwigia was studied when grown alone and in competition with 4 and 12 rice (cv. IR72) plants. Rice interference reduced ludwigia height, number of branches, and shoot and root biomass. However, ludwigia showed the ability to reduce the effects of rice interference by increasing leaf weight ratio, increasing stem and leaf biomass in the upper half of the plant, and increasing specific stem length. At 11 wk after seeding, for example, ludwigia grown with 12 rice plants had 38% greater leaf weight ratio compared to plants grown alone. When grown with 12 rice plants, the weed had 82% of its leaf biomass in upper half of the plant compared to only 25% in weeds grown alone. The results showed that ludwigia responded to rice interference with a combination of adaptations typical of many weed species. Despite such plasticity, the control of ludwigia may be achieved by dense rice stands and increasing interference.

Nomenclature: Ludwigia, Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell; rice, Oryza sativa L

Itchgrass is a weed of many crops throughout the tropics and one of the most important grass weeds of rainfed rice. Experiments were conducted in the laboratory and screenhouse to determine the effects of light, alternating day/night temperatures, high temperature pretreatment, water stress, seed burial depth, and rice residue on seed germination and seedling emergence of itchgrass in the Philippines. Two populations were evaluated and the results were consistent for both populations. Germination in the light/dark regime was greater at alternating day/night temperatures of 25/15 C than at 35/25, 30/20, or 20/10 C. Light was not a requirement for germination, but a light/dark regime increased germination by 96%, across temperature and population. A 5-min high temperature pretreatment for 50% inhibition of maximum itchgrass germination ranged from 145 to 151 C with no germination when seeds were exposed to ≥ 180 C. The osmotic potential required for 50% inhibition of maximum germination was −0.6 MPa for itchgrass, although some seeds germinated at −0.8 MPa. Seedling emergence was greatest for seeds placed on the soil surface, and emergence declined with increasing soil burial depth; no seedlings emerged from seeds buried at 10 cm. The addition of rice residue to soil surface in pots at rates equivalent to 4 to 6 Mg ha⁻¹ reduced itchgrass seedling emergence. Since seedling emergence was greatest at shallow depths and germination was stimulated by light, itchgrass may become a problem in systems where soil is cultivated at shallow depths. Knowledge gained in this study could contribute to developing components of integrated weed management strategies for itchgrass.

Nomenclature: Itchgrass, Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W.D. Clayton ROTCO; rice, Oryza sativa L

Jointed goatgrass is an exotic species introduced into the western United States from Eurasia. The weed is an agricultural pest infesting winter wheat fields and causing economic loss. Common ancestry between the two species enables interspecific hybridization, thus providing a mechanism for gene flow to occur. This can facilitate the accumulation of novel genes, which could increase the wild species' competitiveness with wheat and its ability to invade novel habitats. Interest in the development of transgenic wheat cultivars has increased the concern for interspecific gene flow. Gene introgression requires recurrent backcrossing to the weedy species after the initial hybridization event. Field experiments were conducted at two locations in Colorado in 2007–2008 and 2008–2009, with jointed goatgrass acting as the sole source of viable pollen for fertilization of transplanted hybrid plants. Backcrossing rates were determined by conducting germination studies on spikes collected from a total of 206 hybrid plants. Pollination by jointed goatgrass led to the production of 463 BC₁ plants from seed produced on these 206 hybrid plants. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals estimate the rate of backcrossing at 0.028 to 0.306% and 0.077 to 0.604%, with medians of 0.062 and 0.152%, respectively, at the two locations. The results demonstrate that backcrossing to jointed goatgrass can occur, despite low rates of hybrid fertility. Subsequent backcrossing would make it likely that a wheat gene conferring a selective advantage will introgress into the weedy population. For the U.S. Great Plains, it is possible that transgenic wheat cultivars will be released in the future and determining proper management of these cultivars is necessary to minimize hybridization and advantageous gene introgression into weedy relatives.

Nomenclature: Jointed goatgrass, Aegilops cylindrica Host.; bread wheat, Triticum aestivum L

Resistance to the thiocarbamates has been selected in early watergrass populations within the rice-growing region of California. To elucidate the processes contributing to the spread of resistance among rice fields, we characterized the genetic diversity and differentiation of thiobencarb-resistant (R) and thiobencarb-susceptible (S) populations across the Central Valley using microsatellite markers. A total of 406 individuals from 22 populations were genotyped using seven nuclear microsatellite primer pairs. Three analytical approaches (unshared allele, Shannon–Weaver, and allelic-phenotype statistics) were used to assess genetic diversity and differentiation in the allohexaploid species. Low levels of genetic variation were detected within populations, consistent with other highly selfing species, with S populations tending to be more diverse than R populations. F_ST values indicated that populations were genetically differentiated and that genetic differentiation was greater among S populations than R populations. Principal coordinate analysis generated two orthogonal axes that explained 88% of the genetic variance among early watergrass populations and differentiated populations by geographical region, which was associated with resistance phenotype. A Mantel test revealed that genetic distances between R populations were positively correlated with the geographical distances separating populations. Taken together, our results suggest that both short- and long-distance seed dispersal, and multiple local and independent evolutionary events, are involved in the spread of thiobencarb-resistant early watergrass across rice fields in the Sacramento Valley. In contrast, resistance was not detected in early watergrass populations in the San Joaquin Valley.

Nomenclature: Early watergrass; Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch ECHOR

Weed seed persistence in soil can be influenced by many factors, including crop management. This research was conducted to determine whether organic management systems with higher organic amendments and soil microbial biomass could reduce weed seed persistence compared with conventional management systems. Seeds of smooth pigweed and common lambsquarters were buried in mesh bags in organic and conventional systems of two long-term experiments, the Farming Systems Project at the Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Maryland, and the Farming Systems Trial at the Rodale Institute, Pennsylvania. Seed viability was determined after retrieval at half-year intervals for 2 yr. Total soil microbial biomass, as measured by phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) content, was higher in organic systems than in conventional systems at both locations. Over all systems, locations, and experiments, viable seed half-life was relatively consistent with a mean of 1.3 and 1.1 yr and a standard deviation of 0.5 and 0.3 for smooth pigweed and common lambsquarters, respectively. Differences between systems were small and relatively inconsistent. Half-life of smooth pigweed seeds was shorter in the organic than in the conventional system in two of four location-experiments. Half-life of common lambsquarters was shorter in the organic than in the conventional system in one of four location-experiments, but longer in the organic than in the conventional system in two of four location-experiments. There were few correlations between PLFA biomarkers and seed half-lives in three of four location-experiments; however, there were negative correlations up to −0.64 for common lambsquarters and −0.55 for smooth pigweed in the second Rodale experiment. The lack of consistent system effects on seed persistence and the lack of consistent associations between soil microbial biomass and weed seed persistence suggest that soil microorganisms do not have a dominating role in seed mortality. More precise research targeted to identifying specific microbial functions causing seed mortality will be needed to provide a clearer picture of the role of soil microbes in weed seed persistence.

Nomenclature: Common lambsquarters, Chenopodium album L. CHEAL; smooth pigweed, Amaranthus hybridus L. AMACH

Herbicide rate cutting is an example of poor use of agrochemicals that can have potential adverse implications due to rapid herbicide resistance evolution. Recent laboratory-level studies have revealed that herbicides at lower-than-recommended rates can result in rapid herbicide resistance evolution in rigid ryegrass populations. However, crop-field-level studies have until now been lacking. In this study, we examined the impact of low rates of diclofop on the evolution of herbicide resistance in a herbicide-susceptible rigid ryegrass population grown either in a field wheat crop or in potted plants maintained in the field. Subsequent dose–response profiles indicated rapid evolution of diclofop resistance in the selected rigid ryegrass lines from both the crop-field and field pot studies. In addition, there was moderate level of resistance in the selected lines against other tested herbicides to which the population has never been exposed. This resistance evolution was possible because low rates of diclofop allowed substantial rigid ryegrass survivors due to the potential in this cross-pollinated species to accumulate all minor herbicide resistance traits present in the population. The practical lesson from this research is that herbicides should be used at the recommended rates that ensure high weed mortality to minimize the likelihood of minor herbicide resistance traits leading to rapid herbicide resistance evolution.

Nomenclature: Diclofop; rigid ryegrass, Lolium rigidum Gaud. LOLRI; wheat, Triticum aestivum L

Field pea cultivars often differ in weed competition. In several crop types branching has been cited as one of the characteristics conferring competition with weeds. The objective of this study was to determine the difference in weed competition among field pea cultivars differing in basal branching and other characteristics. Ten field pea cultivars with divergent basal branching ability were seeded at 50 plants m⁻² under weedy and weed-free conditions to evaluate their competition with weeds. Branching did not differ greatly between cultivars and was not associated with the weed competiveness of the field pea cultivars. The forage pea cultivars, which were leafed and had longer vines, were much more competitive than the semi-leafless grain cultivars. As a result, the forage cultivars were better able to suppress weeds and maintain their yield under weed presence. However, the absolute seed yield of the forage pea cultivars was low, making them a poor choice for seed production. Vine length and the leafy characteristic may be important genetic characteristics associated with competition in field pea cultivars.

Nomenclature: Imazamox; imazethapyr; glyphosate; pea, Pisum sativum

Rising demand for organic soybeans and high price premiums for organic products have stimulated producer interest in organic soybean production. However, organic soybean producers and those making the transition to organic production cite weed management as their main limitation. Current weed management practices heavily rely on cultivation. Repeated cultivation is expensive and has negative consequences on soil health. Research is needed to improve organic reduced tillage production. Rye cover crop mulches were evaluated for weed suppression abilities and effects on soybean yield. Experiments were planted in 2008 and 2009 at three sites. Rye was planted in the fall of each year and killed at soybean planting with a roller/crimper or flail mower, creating a thick weed-suppressing mulch with potential allelopathic properties. The mulch was augmented with one of three additional weed control tactics: preemergence (PRE) corn gluten meal (CGM), postemergence (POST) clove oil, or postemergence high-residue cultivation. Roll-crimped and flail-mowed treatments had similar weed suppression abilities at most sites. There were no differences between CGM, clove oil, or cultivation at most sites. Sites with rye biomass above 9,000 kg ha⁻¹ of dry matter provided weed control that precluded soybean yield loss from competition. In Goldsboro 2008, where rye biomass was 10,854 kg ha⁻¹ of dry matter, the soybean yield in the rolled rye treatment was not significantly different from the weed-free treatment, yielding at 2,190 and 2,143 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. Likewise, no difference in soybean yield was found in Plymouth 2008 with a rye biomass of 9,256 kg ha⁻¹ and yields of 2,694 kg ha⁻¹ and 2,809 kg ha⁻¹ in the rolled rye and weed-free treatments, respectively. At low rye biomass levels (4,450 to 6,606 kg ha⁻¹), the rolled rye treatment soybean yield was 628 to 822 kg ha⁻¹ less than the weed-free treatment. High rye biomass levels are critical to the success of this production system. However, high rye biomass was, in some cases, also correlated with soybean lodging severe enough to cause concern with this system.

Nomenclature: Clove oil; corn gluten meal; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.; rye, Secale cereale L

Ninety-seven inbred lines of sunflower were screened in the field by treatment with a combination of imazamox and malathion, an inhibitor of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s), to identify sunflower lines with natural tolerance to the herbicide reversed by malathion. One tolerant line, named TolP450-1, was selected and characterized in the field and in the greenhouse to evaluate its response to the herbicides imazamox, prosulfuron, and atrazine at different plant development stages (germination, emergence, and third difoliate) with and without malathion. For all herbicides and all development stages analyzed, TolP450-1 showed significantly higher tolerance compared with the susceptible line RHA266. In all cases, the tolerance was reversed by malathion. This sunflower line, tolerant to multiple herbicides, may be useful in helping to manage herbicide-resistant weeds by allowing additional herbicides to be used in this oilseed crop.

Nomenclature: Atrazine; imazamox; malathion, 2-(dimethoxyphosphinothioylthio) butanedioic acid diethyl ester; prosulfuron; sunflower, Helianthus annuus L

Increasing crop density is a cultural weed management practice that can compliment the use of cover crops for weed suppression. In this research, we created a range of cover crop biomass and soybean densities to assess their weed-suppressive ability alone and in combination. The experiment was conducted in 2008 and 2009 in Maryland and Pennsylvania using five levels of cereal rye residue, representing 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 times the ambient level, and five soybean densities ranging from 0 to 74 seeds m⁻². Weed biomass decreased with increasing rye residue and weeds were completely suppressed at levels above 1,500 g m⁻². Weed biomass also decreased with increasing soybean density in 2 of 4 site–years. We evaluated weed suppression by fitting an exponential decay model of weed biomass as a function of rye biomass and a hyperbolic model of weed biomass as a function of soybean density at each of the five tactic levels. We multiplied these individual tactic models and included an interaction term to test for tactic interactions. In two of the four site-years, the combination of these tactics produced a synergistic interaction that resulted in greater weed suppression than would be predicted by the efficacy of each tactic alone. Our results indicate that increasing soybean planting rate can compensate for lower cereal rye biomass levels when these tactics are combined.

Nomenclature: Cereal rye, Secale cereale L.; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr

Brassicaceae cover crops are gaining attention as potential biofumigants for soil pest suppression because of their ability to release biologically active isothiocyanates (ITCs) and other compounds from hydrolysis of glucosinolates (GSLs). However, biofumigation potential of a Brassicaceae is related to its GSL and ITC profile and GSL to ITC conversion efficiency. Field and laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the biofumigation potential of seven Brassicaceae cover crops for weed control in plasticulture tomato and bell pepper. GSL concentration and composition varied among cover crops and between roots and shoots of each cover crop. Similar GSLs were produced in both years by roots or shoots of each cover crop, but GSL concentrations were variable between years. Total GSLs contributed to the soil by incorporation of Brassicaceae cover crop tissues were estimated between 47 to 452 nmol g⁻¹ soil. Highest ITC concentration was detected in soil at 3 h after cover crop incorporation, and concentration decreased at later timings. GSL to ITC conversion efficiency ranged from 1 to 39%, with variation among cover crops and between years. No injury was observed in tomato and bell pepper transplanted 1 wk after cover crop incorporation, indicating the tolerance of tomato and pepper to ITCs released by the cover crops. Early-season yellow nutsedge control from Brassicaceae cover crops was ≤ 53% at 2 wk after transplanting and declined to ≤ 18% later in the season. This research demonstrates that Brassicaceae cover crops have marginal potential for early-season weed control and cannot be used as a weed control practice in commercial tomato and bell pepper production.

Nomenclature: Yellow nutsedge, Cyperus esculentus L. CYPES; bell pepper, Capsicum annuum L. ‘Heritage’; tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. ‘Amelia’

Field and greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine the effect of herbicides on napiergrass growth and control. In greenhouse experiments, hexazinone, glyphosate, and imazapic were applied POST, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) assimilation was measured with the use of an open-flow gas-exchange system up to 22 d after treatment (DAT). Carbon dioxide assimilation was reduced to zero, indicating plant death, for hexazinone- and glyphosate-treated napiergrass by 2 and 12 DAT, respectively. Imazapic-treated napiergrass CO₂ assimilation declined to a constant rate by 22 DAT, but never reached zero. Field studies at Chula and Ty Ty, Georgia, evaluated herbicides for napiergrass control. Herbicide treatments included autumn-only applications, autumn followed by spring applications, and spring-only applications. All autumn-applied treatments exhibited regrowth in the spring. Plants were not affected by cold winter temperatures. A spade tillage treatment was implemented in January 2010, but was not effective in controlling napiergrass. Spring treatments included split applications of autumn treatments and spring-only treatments of glyphosate, glyphosate plus sethoxydim, and imazapyr. Sequential autumn and spring treatments containing glyphosate at both locations failed to eradicate napiergrass. Imazapyr applied spring achieved 94% plant injury by 34 DAT, and indicated potential napiergrass control. Greenhouse results indicated multiple modes of action could be effective in reducing napiergrass growth, but were inconsistent with field results. Further field studies are needed to derive conclusive methods of napiergrass control.

Nomenclature: Glyphosate; hexazinone; imazapic; imazapyr; sethoxydim; napiergrass, Pennisetum purpureum Schum

Aminocyclopyrachlor (AMCP) is a synthetic auxin herbicide that controls primarily broadleaf (eudicotyledonous) weeds. Previous research indicates that St. Augustinegrass is unacceptably injured by AMCP. In light of the fact that synthetic auxin herbicides usually are safe when applied to monocotyledons, the mechanism for this injury is not fully understood. Anatomical response of St. Augustinegrass to AMCP was investigated using light microscopy. Apical meristem node tissue responded with callus tissue proliferation, abnormal location and development of the apical meristem, necrosis of the developing vascular tissue, vascular parenchyma proliferation, and xylem gum blockages. Node tissues away from the apical meristem responded with xylem gum blockages and the stimulation of lateral meristems and adventitious root formation. Root tip response to AMCP treatment was characterized by a loss of organization. Root tip apical meristem and vascular tissue maturation was disorganized. Additionally, lateral root generation occurred abnormally close to the root tip. These responses impair affected tissue functionality. Mature tissue was unaffected by AMCP treatment. All of these responses are characteristic of synthetic auxin herbicide treatment to other susceptible species. This research indicates that AMCP treatment results in St. Augustinegrass injury and subsequent death through deleterious growth stimulation and concomitant vascular inhibition.

Nomenclature: Aminocyclopyrachlor, DPX-KJM44, DPX-MAT28; St. Augustinegrass, Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntz ‘Palmetto’®, STPSE

Decision-making processes must indicate if, how, and when weed control should be practiced. So far, Decision Support Systems (DSSs) for weed control to prevent crop yield losses can guide decisions on “if” and “how.” Experience shows that farmers need a DSS that can also guide when to treat, but this can only be done if the actual weed density observed in the field is known during the crop cycle. Emergence models allow the prediction of daily density, but precision depends on the survey date. This study focuses on the estimation of the date of the survey for the best prediction of the daily density throughout the crop cycle. The predicted daily density of each species can be used by DSSs without any further survey, saving time and money and improving the use of the DSSs. Results showed that the best date is when the actual density of each weed reaches or exceeds 50% emergence, and this is earlier than the critical point date, supporting the validity of the date estimation method. The possibility to provide specific advice for farmers considering a proper mortality rate of weed seedlings is then discussed. The ability to optimize the date of sampling can improve the reliability of decision-making tools for integrated weed management, in agreement with the European Union goal of sustainable use of pesticides and more environmentally sustainable cropping systems through the use of integrated pest management.

Leaf-cover area is a widely required plant development parameter for predictive models of weed growth and competition. Its assessment is performed either manually, which is labor intensive, or via visual inspection, which provides biased results. In contrast, digital image processing enables a high level of automation, thereby offering an attractive means for estimating vegetative leaf-cover area. Nonetheless, image-driven analysis is greatly affected by illumination conditions and camera position at the time of imaging and therefore may introduce bias into the analysis. Addressing both of these factors, this paper proposes an image-based model for leaf-cover area and biomass measurements. The proposed model transforms color images into an illumination-invariant representation, thus facilitating accurate leaf-cover detection under varying light conditions. To eliminate the need for fixed camera position, images are transformed into an object–space reference frame, enabling measurement in absolute metric units. Application of the proposed model shows stability in leaf-cover detection and measurement irrespective of camera position and external illumination conditions. When tested on purple nutsedge, one of the world's most troublesome weeds, a linear relation between measured leaf-cover area and plant biomass was obtained regardless of plant developmental stage. Data on the expansion of purple nutsedge leaf-cover area is essential for modeling its spatial growth. The proposed model offers the possibility of acquiring reliable and accurate biological data from digital images without extensive photogrammetric or image-processing expertise.

Nomenclature: Purple nutsedge, Cyperus rotundus L. CYPRO